Fig. 1
From: The immunomodulatory effects of endocrine therapy in breast cancer
Estrogen induces suppressive tumor immune microenvironment. Estrogen predominantly plays an immune-suppressive function in the TIM. Estrogen reduces multiple cytokines in macrophages and preferentially polarizes macrophages towards the M2 subtype. The infiltration of neutrophils with a protumoral signature may also be induced by estrogen. Both the proliferation and immunosuppressive function of Tregs and MDSCs can be potentiated by estrogen. Estrogen also inhibits the function of cytotoxic T cells, DCs and NK cells through multiple mechanisms