Table 1 The clinical potential of liquid biopsy in the diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and prognostic evaluation of lung cancer

Disease diagnosis

CTCs

CTCs

Increased expression levels of CTCs or CA125 help in diagnosis of NSCLC

[245]

CTCs

Combination of CTCs with the lung cancer biomarker CEA improves early diagnosis of lung cancer

[246]

PD-L1

The detection of CTCs and PD-L1 in peripheral blood is helpful for the diagnosis of lung cancer patients.

[247]

ctDNA

DNA methylation

DNA methylation sequencing of ctDNA allows non-invasive diagnosis of early lung cancer

[4]

ctDNA sequencing

ctDNA helps detect early lung cancer

[248]

Tumor mutation

Tumor mutation ctDNA analysis is something that can help with early lung cancer diagnosis.

[249]

ncRNA

miR-155-5p

Early diagnosis of lung cancer via miR-155-5p

[250]

LINC00313/miR-4429

LINC00313/miR-4429 informs NSCLC diagnosis and prognosis

[251]

miR-205-5p

miR-205-5p promotes lung cancer progression and is valuable in the diagnosis of lung cancer

[252]

miRNA-21

miRNA-21 can be used as a biomarker for early diagnosis of lung cancer

[253]

EVs

miR-21, miR-191

Extracellular vesicles isolated and detected in plasma can be used for lung cancer diagnosis

[254]

NG

Detection of extracellular vesicular membrane proteins by Förster resonance energy transfer for accurate and convenient early diagnosis of lung cancer

[255]

miR-520c-3p/miR-1274b

miR-520c-3p and miR-1274b in EVs of lung cancer patients contribute to diagnosis of NSCLC

[139]

Metabolites

Cytosine, lysine, tyrosine

Salivary diethanolamine, cytosine, lysine and tyrosine help in the differential diagnosis of lung cancer and benign lung lesions

[256]

Ornithine

Tumor metabolites such as ornithine have potential for early lung cancer screening

[141]

TEP

lncRNA

lncRNA isolated from TEP enables lung cancer diagnosis and progression prediction

[220]

SNORD55

SNORD55 in TEP could be a potential biomarker for early diagnosis of NSCLC

[146]

TAA

NRP2

High expression of NRP2 facilitates early diagnosis of lung cancer

[149]

HMGB3

Autoantibody against HMGB3 has the potential to serve as a serological biomarker in early-stage lung cancer

[150]

Treatment monitoring

CTCs

CTCs

Monitoring drug resistance mutations in lung cancer patients using CTCs to assess treatment response

[257]

CTCs

CTCs can dynamically monitor the therapeutic effect of pembrolizumab in metastatic NSCLC

[258]

ctDNA

ctDNA sequencing

ctDNA analysis can identify residual/recurrent disease earlier than standard radiography, thus contributing to early personalized adjuvant therapy

[259]

ctDNA mutation

Evaluation of ctDNA predicts tumor recurrence in lung cancer

[260]

ctDNA mutation

ctDNA can monitor for microscopic residual disease

[261]

ctDNA sequencing

Detection of microscopic residual disease after lung cancer surgery

[262]

ncRNA

microRNA

microRNAs can be used as biomarkers in NSCLC to monitor therapeutic response to chemotherapy in tumor cells

[263]

circ_0011292

circ_0011292 is associated with NSCLC progression and chemotherapy resistance

[264]

EVs

miRNA-30c

Extracellular vesicular miRNA-30c monitors response to radiotherapy treatment and assesses prognosis in lung cancer patients

[265]

circ_0041150

Monitoring chemoresistance in NSCLC treated with chemotherapy regimens by circ_0041150 in lung cancer cell-derived EVs

[266]

Metabolites

SN-38

Monitoring the therapeutic response of irinotecan in tumor patients by active metabolite (SN-38)

[267]

Tumor-derived metabolomics data can assess disease staging and chemotherapy response in NSCLC

[268]

TEP

Tumor-derived RNA

TEP can help liquid biopsy monitor treatment resistance

[93]

PD-L1

PD-L1 expressed on TEP can influence immune checkpoint therapy response

[269]

TAA

TRIM21

Positive TRIM21 autoantibody combinations in peripheral blood of lung cancer are significantly associated with better treatment response

[186]

HMGB1

HMGB1 may predict treatment response and prognosis in patients with advanced NSCLC

[188]

Prognosis evaluation

CTCs

CTCs

Circulating tumor cells in patients with lung cancer universally indicate poor prognosis

[270]

DNA Methylation

DNA methylation sequencing of CTCs predicts prognosis and provides therapeutic strategies for lung cancer

[21]

ctDNA

ctDNA

ctDNA predicts prognostic outcomes and tracks early tumor dissemination in lung cancer patients

[271]

ctDNA

Combined circulating tumor DNA and protein biomarker assay analyzes prognosis of lung cancer patients

[272]

ncRNAs

lncRNA

Immune checkpoint-associated lncRNA identify different subtypes of lung cancer and predict immunotherapy and prognosis

[273]

lncRNA AC079630.4

Expression of lncRNA AC079630.4 is associated with poor prognosis in lung cancer patients

[274]

EVs

hY4 RNA

EVs carrying hY4 RNA methylation fragments promote lung cancer progression

[275]

miR-126/miR-320

miR-126 and miR-320 in EVs of lung cancer origin induce lung cancer metastasis and are associated with poor prognosis

[276]

Metabolites

Creatine/creatinine

Tumor metabolites (creatine and creatinine) shown to be useful in assessing lung cancer prognosis and monitoring cancer recurrence

[277]

Creatine nucleoside

Tumor metabolites creatine nucleoside and arginine as potential indicators of poor prognosis in lung cancer

[278]

TEP

Volume and number of TEP

Volume and number of TEP can inform the evaluation of lung cancer prognosis

[279]

ITGA2B

ITGA2B in TEP can be applied to diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of NSCLC

[148]

TAA

MAGE-B2

MAGE-B2 in lung cancer serum can reflect tumor recurrence and metastasis information

[223]